We evaluated the potential for biomagnification of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP), bisphenol A (BP), and natural estrogens such as estrone (E1) and 17β-estradiol (E2) in a benthic fish, Pleuronectes yokohamae. The assimilation efficiencies (AE) of most EDCs ranged from 88 to 96% suggesting that they were efficiently incorporated and assimilated into P. yokohamae, except for NP (50%). However, the biomagnification factor (BMF) values were <1.0 suggesting that the compounds were not biomagnifying. Additionally, three of the target EDCs were not detected (BP, E1 and E2). Glucuronidation activity towards BP (11.44 ± 2.5 nmol/mg protein/min) and E2 (12.41 ± 3.2 nmol/mg protein/min) was high in the intestine suggesting that EDCs were glucuronidated prior to excretion into bile. Thus, we conclude that biomagnification of dietary EDCs is reduced in P. yokohamae because of effective glucuronidation.
This review paper briefly explains the meaning and characteristics of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). EDCs comprise various types of natural and synthetic chemical compounds that can impede the reproductive action of the endocrine system in animals and humans. Further discussion is on bisphenol A (BPA), one of the examples of EDCs that is extensively used in industries nowadays. It acts as a monomer, which is desired in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA later ends up in environmental compartments (air, water, sediment). In spite of this, BPA is not categorized as a persistent compound and it will be degraded either by photolysis or bacteria. It can only exist between three and five days in the environment. The concentration of BPA varies in different locations depending on the temperature, pH, source and time of sampling. BPA has been frequently debated due to its toxicity and carcinogenicity towards animals and humans. This paper also explains several extraction procedures and analytical methods concerning how to identify BPA in either aqueous or solid samples. However, an additional review is needed in respect of how to handle, reduce the level of BPA in the environment and understand the details concerning the existence of BPA.
The presence of endocrine disruptors in source water is of great concern because of their suspected adverse effects on humans, even when present at very low levels. As the main source of potable water supply, rivers in Malaysia are highly susceptible to contamination by various endocrine disruptors originating from anthropogenic activities. In this study, the contamination levels of 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT) and its metabolites and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in rivers of Selangor were examined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Samples were collected from sites representing source water for 18 drinking water treatment plants in Selangor between July 2008 and July 2009. DDT and its metabolites were detected in only 14% of the 192 samples analysed at levels ranging from 0.6 to 14.6 ng/L. Meanwhile DEHP was detected in 96.8% of the samples at levels ranging from below quantitation level (18 ng/L) to 970 ng/L. The detected levels of DDTs and DEHP were lower than the WHO and Malaysian Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Data obtained from this study should also serve as a reference point for future surveillance on these endocrine disruptors.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are the focus of current environmental issues, as they can cause adverse health effects to animals and human, subsequent to endocrine function. The objective of this study was to remove a specific compound of EDCs (i.e. pentachlorophenol, C(6)OCL(5)Na, molecular weight of 288 g/mol) using low pressure reverse osmosis membrane (LPROM). A cross flow module of LPROM was used to observe the effects of operating parameters, i.e. pH, operating pressure and temperature. The design of the experiment was based on MINITAB(TM) software, and the analysis of results was conducted by factorial analysis. It was found that the rejection of pentachlorophenol was higher than 80% at a recovery rate of 60 to 70%. The rejection was subjected to increase with the increase of pH. The flux was observed to be increased with the increase of operating pressure and temperature. This study also investigated the interaction effects between operating parameters involved.
The presence and distribution of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the mariculture fish from Pulau Kukup, Johor of Malaysia have been studied along with the impact on human health. Six different species of mariculture fish were collected, due to their high consumption in the Asian region-especially Malaysia, to assess their levels of EDCs. The highest concentration of EDCs detected in the muscle was dexamethasone (2.37-15.84 ng/g) and (0.77-13.41 ng/g), in the liver was dexamethasone (<2.54-43.56 ng/g) and progesterone (2.23-9.78 ng/g), and in the reproductive organ are dexamethasone (<2.54-37.23 ng/g) and caffeine (0.21-18.92 ng/g). The human health risk assessment in the current study suggested that there is no potential risk to the consumer because the hazard index was below 1 (HI
Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are an emerging environmental concern and commonly occur as a mixture of compounds. The EDC mixture can be more toxic than any single compound. The present study analyses EDCs in surface water in the case of an urban tropical river, the Langat River, using the multiresidue analytical method of solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS). The Langat River is used as a drinking water source and is treated for Malaysian drinking water supply. A total of 14 EDCs i.e. five hormones, seven pharmaceuticals, one pesticide, and one plasticizer were detected. Caffeine was observed to be highest at 19.33 ng/L, followed by bisphenol A and diclofenac at 8.24 ng/L and 6.15 ng/L, respectively. Using a conservative risk quotient (RQ) method, EDCs were estimated for having negligible risks under acute and chronic exposure (RQ
Contamination by endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) concerns the security and sustainability of a drinking water supply system and human exposure via water consumption. This study analyzed the selected EDCs in source (river water, n = 10) and supply (tap water, n = 155) points and the associated risks. A total of 14 multiclass EDCs was detected in the drinking water supply system in Malaysia. Triclosan (an antimicrobial agent) and 4-octylphenol (a plasticizer) were only detected in the tap water (up to 9.74 and 0.44 ng/L, respectively). Meanwhile, chloramphenicol and 4-nonylphenol in the system were below the method detection limits. Bisphenol A was observed to be highest in tap water at 66.40 ng/L (detection: 100%; median concentration: 0.28 ng/L). There was a significant difference in triclosan contamination between the river and tap water (p
The catalytic properties of nanoparticles (e.g., nano zero valent iron, nZVI) have been used to effectively treat a wide range of environmental contaminants. Emerging contaminants such as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are susceptible to degradation by nanoparticles. Despite extensive investigations, questions remain on the transformation mechanism on the nZVI surface under different environmental conditions (redox and pH). Furthermore, in terms of the large-scale requirement for nanomaterials in field applications, the effect of polymer-stabilization used by commercial vendors on the above processes is unclear. To address these factors, we investigated the degradation of a model EDC, the steroidal estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), by commercially sourced nZVI at pH 3, 5 and 7 under different oxygen conditions. Following the use of radical scavengers, an assessment of the EE2 transformation products shows that under nitrogen purging direct reduction of EE2 by nZVI occurred at all pHs. The radicals transforming EE2 in the absence of purging and upon air purging were similar for a given pH, but the dominant radical varied with pH. Upon air purging, EE2 was transformed by the same radical species as the non-purged system at the same respective pH, but the degradation rate was lower with more oxygen - most likely due to faster nZVI oxidation upon aeration, coupled with radical scavenging. The dominant radicals were OH at pH 3 and O2- at pH 5, and while neither radical was involved at pH 7, no conclusive inferences could be made on the actual radical involved at pH 7. Similar transformation products were observed without purging and upon air purging.
The occurrence and estrogenic activities of steroid estrogens, such as the natural estrone (E1), 17β estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3), as well as the synthetic 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2), were investigated in eight sampling points along the Langat River (Malaysia). Surface water samples were collected at 0.5 m and surface sediment 0-5 cm from the river surface. Instrument analysis of steroid estrogens was determined by UPLC-ESI-MS with an ultra-performance liquid chromatograph (Perkin Elmer FX15) coupled to a Q Trap function mass spectrophotometer (model 3200: AB Sciex). Steroid estrogen concentrations were higher in the Langat River sediments than those in its surface water. In surface water, E1 was not detected in any sampling point, E2 was only detected in two midstream sampling points (range 0-0.004 ng/L), E3 in three sampling points (range 0-0.002 ng/L), and EE2 in four sampling points (range 0-0.02 ng/L). E1 and E2 were detected in sediments from all sampling points, E3 in five sampling points, while EE2 only in one midstream sample (3.29E-4 ng/g). Sewage treatment plants, farming waste, and agricultural activities particularly present midstream and downstream were identified as potential sources of estrogens. Estrogenic activity expressed as estradiol equivalents (EEQs) was below 1 ng/L in all samples for both surface water and sediment, indicating therefore a low potential estrogenic risk to the aquatic environment. Although the health risks are still uncertain for drinking water consumers exposed to low levels of steroid estrogen concentrations, Langat River water is unacceptable for direct drinking purposes without treatment. Further studies of endocrine disruptors in Malaysian waters are highly recommended.
Dicofol, a recommended Stockholm convention persistent organic pollutants (POPs) candidate is well known for its endocrine disruptive properties and has been extensively used as an organochlorine pesticide worldwide. The hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) treatment of Dicofol in aqueous media induced by a liquid whistle hydrodynamic cavitaion reactor (LWHCR) has been investigated while considering important parameters such as inlet pressure, initial concentration of Dicofol, solution temperature, pH, addition of H2O2 and radical scavenger for the extent of degradation. The pseudo-first-order degradation rate constant (k) was determined to be 0.073 min-1 with a cavitational yield of 1.26 × 10-5 mg/J at optimum operating conditions and a complete removal of Dicofol was achieved within 1 h of treatment. Considering the removal rate and energy efficiency, the optimal inlet pressure was found to be 7 bar, resulting in a cavitation number of 0.17. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and Gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analyses indicated a sharp decline in the concentration of Dicofol with treatment time and indicated the presence of degraded products. An 85% total organic carbon (TOC) removal was achieved within 1 h of treatment time, demonstrating successful mineralization of Dicofol. The obtained results suggest that the degradation of Dicofol followed thermal decomposition and successive recombination reactions at bubble-vapor interface. Overall, the attempted hydrodynamic cavitation demonstrated successful and rapid removal of endocrine disruptive chemicals such as Dicofol and is expected to provide efficient solution for wastewater treatment.
Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) such as hormones, pesticides, phenolic compounds, and pharmaceuticals compounds can cause adverse effects on humans, animals, and other living organisms. One of the largest mariculture areas situated in Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia, is actively involved in exporting marine fish to other countries worldwide. This paper aims to provide baseline data on the level of EDC pollutants found in mariculture sediments in Malaysia since no reports have investigated this issue. Calculated samples recovered are between 50.39 and 129.10% at 100 ng/g spiking level. The highest concentration in the sediment samples was bisphenol A (0.072-0.389 ng/g dry weight) followed by diethylstilbestrol (<0.208-0.331 ng/g dry weight) and propranolol (<0.250-0.275 ng/g dry weight). Even though the concentrations of the targeted compounds obtained were low, their effects could become more evident longer term, which raises not only environmental health concerns but the potential risk to humans.
Endocrine disrupting compound (EDC) contamination in food is a global concern. Concerning potential environmental and human health exposed to EDCs via food intake, an experiment was conducted on the selected EDCs concentration in the mariculture fish, Trachinotus blochii (golden pomfret), Lutjanus campechanus (snapper), and Lates calcarifer (sea bass) at Pulau Kukup, Johor. Mariculture activity at Pulau Kukup involves active export of fishes to Singapore and Indonesia. The recovery of BPA (bisphenol A), 4OP (4-octylphenol), and 4NP (4-nonylphenol) were 61.54%-93.00%, 16.79%-17.13%, and 61.24%-71.49%, respectively. Relatively high concentration of BPA was recorded in T. blochii (0.322ng/g), followed by L. calcarifer (0.124ng/g) and L. campechanus (0.023ng/g). Furthermore, 4OP and 4NP were detected only in T. blochii at concentrations of 0.084ng/g and 0.078ng/g, respectively. The results of the present study provide insights on monitoring and managing mariculture activity in relation to environmental protection and food safety.
Since bisphenol A (BPA) exhibits endocrine disrupting action and high toxicity in aqueous system, there are high demands to remove it completely. In this study, the BPA removal by sonophotocatalysis coupled with nano-structured graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4, GCN) was conducted with various batch tests using energy-based advanced oxidation process (AOP) based on ultrasound (US) and visible light (Vis-L). Results of batch tests indicated that GCN-based sonophotocatalysis (Vis-L/US) had higher rate constants than other AOPs and especially two times higher degradation rate than TiO2-based Vis-L/US. This result infers that GCN is effective in the catalytic activity in Vis-L/US since its surface can be activated by Vis-L to transport electrons from valence band (VB) for utilizing holes (h+VB) in the removal of BPA. In addition, US irradiation exfoliated the GCN effectively. The formation of BPA intermediates was investigated in detail by using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS). The possible degradation pathway of BPA was proposed.
This study investigated the removal of parabens, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET), and phthalates by ozonation. The second-order rate constants for the reaction between selected compounds with ozone at pH 7 were of (2.2 +/-0.2) X 10(6) to (2.9 +/-0.3) X 10(6) M 1/s for parabens, (2.1+/- 0.3) to (3.9 +/-0.5) M-1/s for phthalates, and (5.2 +/-0.3) M-1/s for DEET. The rate constants for the reaction between selected compounds with hydroxyl radical ranged from (2.49 +/-0.06) x 10(9) to (8.5 +/-0.2) x 10(9) M-1/s. Ozonation of selected compounds in secondary wastewater and surface waters revealed that ozone dose of 1 and 3 mg/L yielded greater than 99% depletion of parabens and greater than 92% DEET and phthalates, respectively. In addition, parabens were found to transform almost exclusively through the reaction with ozone, while DEET and phthalates were transformed almost entirely by hydroxyl radicals (.OH).
A comprehensive monitoring survey for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) utilizing mussels as sentinel organisms was conducted in South and Southeast Asia as a part of the Asian Mussel Watch project. Green mussel (Perna viridis) samples collected from a total of 48 locations in India, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Philippines during 1994-1999 were analyzed for PAHs, EDCs including nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP) and bisphenol A (BPA), and linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) as molecular markers for sewage. Concentrations of NP ranged from 18 to 643 ng/g-dry tissue. The highest levels of NP in Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, and Indonesia were comparable to those observed in Tokyo Bay. Elevated concentrations of EDCs were not observed in Vietnam and Cambodia, probably due to the lower extent of industrialization in these regions. No consistent relationship between concentrations of phenolic EDCs and LABs were found, suggesting that sewage is not a major source of EDCs. Concentrations of PAHs ranged from 11 to 1,133 ng/g-dry, which were categorized as "low to moderate" levels of pollution. The ratio of methylphenanthrenes to phenanthrene (MP/P ratio) was >1.0 in 20 out of 25 locations, indicating extensive input of petrogenic PAHs. This study provides a bench-mark for data on the distribution of anthropogenic contaminants in this region, which is essential in evaluating temporal and spatial variation and effect of future regulatory measures.
A total of seven pesticides and eight alkylphenols were monitored using this method for the determination of their trace levels in human cord blood. The pesticides are lindane, diazinon, alpha-endosulfan, beta-endosulfan, endosulfan sulfate, chlorpyrifos and endrin; while the alkylphenols are 4-n-butylphenol, 4-n-pentylphenol, 4-n-hexylphenol, 4-t-octylphenol, 4-n-heptylphenol, nonylphenol, 4-n-octylphenol and bisphenol A. The pesticides and alkylphenols in the cord blood samples were extracted with solid phase extraction IST C18 cartridges and analyzed by selected ion monitoring mode using quadrapole detector in Shimadzu QP-5000 gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Trace levels of pesticide and alkylphenols in the range of non-detectable to 15.17 ng ml(-1), were detected in the human cord blood samples. This technique of monitoring the levels of endocrine-disruptors in blood samples is consistent, reliable and cost effective while reducing wastage of time and solvents.
Bisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor with widespread applications, especially in the production of polycarbonate and epoxy resins. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on solidification of floating organic technique has been developed for the extraction of bisphenol A from water and soft drink. The 1-undecanol has been applied as the extraction solvent because of its low density and melting point and high affinity to the analyte. The technique offered rapid and simple analysis as the 1-undecanol was homogeneously dispersed in the sample solution to speed the extraction and the collection of extraction solvent was simplified by centrifugation, cooling and melting steps.
Rivers as surface water in Malaysia are recipients of effluents and wastewater and yet it is important water source for daily uses of some villagers living along the river. Endocrine disruptors such as Bisphenol A (BPA) can be found in river due to continuous discharge into it. The objectives of this research is to find out the occurrence and concentration of BPA in Sungai Langat and also to see how water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and ammonia nitrogen (AN) affecting the concentration of BPA. 12 stations in total including upstream to downstream of Sungai Langat and also tributary of Sungai Langat. The instrument used to find out concentration of BPA is Triple Quadrupole LC/MS. The source of BPA are mainly industrial effluents and also direct domestic discharges. The water quality parameters that will affect concentration of BPA are Ammonia Nitrogen (AN), turbidity, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solid (TSS), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO). While pH and water temperature are also factors that will affect concentration of BPA but the significance is not shown in the analysis. It can be concluded that upstream of Sungai Langat has lower concentration of BPA than downstream.
Extensive use of carbofuran insecticide harms the environment and human health. Carbofuran is an endocrine disruptor and has the highest acute toxicity to humans than all groups of carbamate pesticides used. Carbofuran is highly mobile in soil and soluble in water with a lengthy half-life (50 days). Therefore, it has the potential to contaminate groundwater and nearby water bodies after rainfall events. A bacterial strain BRC05 was isolated from agricultural soil characterized and presumptively identified as Enterobacter sp. The strain was immobilized using gellan gum as an entrapment material. The effect of different heavy metals and the ability of the immobilized cells to degrade carbofuran were compared with their free cell counterparts. The results showed a significant increase in the degradation of carbofuran by immobilized cells compared with freely suspended cells. Carbofuran was completely degraded within 9 h by immobilized cells at 50 mg/L, while it took 12 h for free cells to degrade carbofuran at the same concentration. Besides, the immobilized cells completely degraded carbofuran within 38 h at 100 mg/L. On the other hand, free cells degraded the compound in 68 h. The viability of the freely suspended cell and degradation efficiency was inhibited at a concentration greater than 100 mg/L. Whereas, the immobilized cells almost completely degraded carbofuran at 100 mg/L. At 250 mg/L concentration, the rate of degradation decreased significantly in free cells. The immobilized cells could also be reused for about nine cycles without losing their degradation activity. Hence, the gellan gum-immobilized cells of Enterobacter sp. could be potentially used in the bioremediation of carbofuran in contaminated soil.