Parenting stress is the stress level experienced within the role of a parent (Hoekstra-Weebers et al. 1998). The source of stressors is variable and dependent on the phase of disease and chemotherapy (Sawyer et al. 2000). Failure to cope with these stressors may in turn affect the child’s emotional and social adjustment towards the diagnosis of cancer in addition to poor medical treatment adherence behaviour (Sawyer et al. 1993). The objectives of this study are to determine the level of parenting stress, the risk factors contributing to high parenting stress, and the coping mechanisms used to handle the stress. This single centred, cross-sectional study was done amongst 117 parents at the Paediatric Haematology and Oncology Unit, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) over two years duration. Self-administered questionnaires comprising the Parenting Stress Index/Short Form (PSI/SF) and Coping Inventory for Stressful Situation (CISS) were distributed to parents of children who were 12 years old and below. The mean total parenting stress score amongst parents of children diagnosed with acute leukaemia was 91.5±21.1(95% CI). A total of 27.3% of parents experienced a high total parenting stress score (defined as total PSI score ≥ 75th centile, ie ≥ 103). Task-oriented coping mechanism was used by the majority of parents. Emotion-oriented coping mechanism was the only identifiable risk factor for high parenting stress score following multiple logistic regression analysis. A parent who used emotion-oriented coping mechanism was 7.1 times (95% Confidence Interval 1.2 to 41.4) more likely to have a high parenting stress score compared to a parent who used other coping mechanisms. By identifying these at-risk parents, appropriate counselling and psychological support may be offered early to alleviate the stress as well as assist in the coping and adjustment mechanisms of these parents.
De novo stress urinary incontinence (SUI) may occur in up to 80% of clinically continent women following genitourinary prolapse surgery. This had resulted in an increase in the rate of concurrent continence surgery during prolapse repair from 38% in 2001 to 47% in 2009 in the United States. To date, there is no local data available to estimate the prevalence of occult SUI (OSUI) among Malaysian women awaiting surgery. Therefore, this study was conducted to elicit the prevalence of occult SUI and its associated risks factors in patients awaiting prolapse surgery. We retrospectively studied the records of 296 consecutive women with significant pelvic organ prolapse awaiting reconstructive repair. All patients attended the Urogynaecology Unit in Hospital Kuala Lumpur Malaysia between October 2007 and September 2011. They had undergone standardized interviews, clinical examinations and urodynamic studies. During the urodynamic testings, all prolapses were reduced using ring pessaries to elicit OSUI. Primary outcome was the prevalence of OSUI with prolapse reduction to predict possibility of developing de novo SUI following prolapse surgery. Secondary outcome was the assessment of potential risk factors for OSUI. Among the 296 women studied, 121 (40.9%) were found to have OSUI. The risk factors associated with OSUI included age, BMI, numbers of SVD, recurrent UTI, reduction of urinary flow symptoms and grade 2 to 4 central compartment prolapses. We concluded that preoperative urodynamic testing with reduction of prolapse is useful to identify women with OSUI. This is important for preoperative counselling as well as planning for one step approach of prophylactic concomitant anti-incontinence procedures during prolapse surgery in order to avoid postoperative de novo SUI.
The leading cause of mortality in Malaysia is coronary heart disease (CHD). Several cardiovascular (CVD) risk factors contribute to this problem and smoking is one of the main modifiable risk factor. Most of the patients started smoking early during youth period. This study aimed to determine the association and to predict the cigarette smoking and cardiovascular risk factors among the male youth. A cross sectional study was conducted by self-administered data sheets, physical examinations: blood pressure measurement and body mass index calculation, blood taking procedure for blood glucose, total cholesterol and HDL-C levels. The results showed that the glycemic status was significantly associated with smoking status (p=0.048) however, there was no significant association for smokers and risk of developing diabetes mellitus compared to non smokers although smokers had higher odd ratio (OR: 4.33; 95%CI: 0.900-20.811) (p=0.068). Interestingly, for daily exposure of smoking, those who smoke 5 cigarette and less was significantly associated with high systolic blood pressure (p = 0.036) and smoking showed protective trend against systolic hypertension (OR: 0.57; 95% CI: 0.266-1.230), however, it was not significant (p=0.152). In conclusion, smoking among youth and its association with the cardiovascular risk factor should be addressed tactfully and early screening should be promptly done among the smoking youth for early prevention.
The population with normal body mass index (BMI) but with abdominal obesity are most of the time the ‘neglected’ population in terms of health interventions. The aim of this study is to study the prevalence of abdominal obesity and to explore the factors causing abdominal obesity by using waist circumference (WC) measurement. A cross sectional study was conducted among a group of respondents in Tanjung Karang, Selangor, Malaysia from January until June 2010, among those aged 18 years old and above, to explore the demographic (gender and ethnics), lifestyle factors (physical activity, carbohydrate intake and smoking status) and measurement of body weight, height and waist circumference. A total of 629 subjects with normal BMI were studied. The prevalence of abdominal obesity was 36.1% based on WC (40.0% males and 70.0% females). The predictor model revealed that being non-Malay (aOR = 2.1; 95% CI: 1.35-3.20) and being female (aOR = 3.6; 95% CI: 2.51-5.06) were the associated factors of having abdominal obesity in normal BMI population. In conclusion, females and non-Malay were factors that were found to be associated with abdominal obesity in normal BMI population. This is important in targeting this vulnerable population with risk factors that can develop non communicable diseases for early interventions.
Dietary pattern analysis has emerged as important instruments to identify modifiable dietary risk factors for non-communicable diseases. The aim of this study was to determine the major dietary patterns among adolescents in Petaling District, Selangor and their associations with socio-demographic characteristics and obesity. An analytic cross- sectional study design was conducted in selected secondary schools in Petaling District. Sampling with probability proportionate to size was used and five schools were selected. Self-administered semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire was used for data collection. Weight was measured with a digital bathroom scale (TANITA model) and height was measured using SECA body meter. Principal component factor analysis using varimax orthogonal transformation was used to identify the dietary patterns. Chi square was used to test for associations of dietary patterns with socio-demographic characteristics and obesity. Three major dietary patterns were identified: firstly, fruits and vegetables; secondly, sugar and fatand finally, meat and chicken which explained for 12.7%, 11.6% and 10.7% variation in food intake, respectively. There were significant associations between ethnicity, religion, family income, educational level of parents and the dietary patterns. However, there was no significant association between obesity and the dietary patterns. It may be more effective to describe a healthy diet using results of dietary pattern analysis in public health intervention, rather than describing single food items or nutrients. It is recommended that nutrition education programmes should be implemented in schools so as to prevent the development of obesity in the non-obese.
Obesity is a well-established risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The objective of
the study was to determine the prevalence of obesity and factors associated among secondary school students aged between 13 to 17 years at Slemani City Centre, Iraq. Methodology: A cross sectional study design was used. The calculated sample size was 1656. Probability proportional to size sampling technique was used to select the sample. A validated pretested questionnaire was used to collect the data. Weight and height were also taken. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21. Chi-square test was used to determine an association between two categorical variables. Independent t-test was used to compare two means. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine the predictors for obesity. Results: The response rate was 92.54% and the overall mean age of the 1588 respondents was 15.42 (95% CI = 15.35, 15.49) years. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 20.6% and 11.3% respectively. Variables significantly associated with overweight and obesity (age, monthly family income, education level of parents, body part satisfaction and body size perception) were entered into the logistic regression model. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the predictors for overweight and obesity were age, monthly family income, body part dissatisfaction and body size perception. Conclusion: The prevalence of overweight and obesity is high (20.6% and 11.3% respectively). The predictors of obesity among secondary school students aged between 13 to 17 years old at Slemani City Centre Kurdistan Region, Iraq were age, family income and body image dissatisfaction.
Sexual dysfunction is highly prevalent in gynaecological cancer patients. Most of the time, sexual dysfunction in gynaecological cancer is underdiagnosed as there is overlapping of symptoms with other psychological morbidities, interplaying of multiple risks, patients’ reluctance to complain or incompetence of health care provider to assess. Determining the risk factors of sexual dysfunction in cancer patients enables us to pay more attention to those who are vulnerable and to device strategies for early detection, prevention and treatment of sexual dysfunction in them. The main aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of sexual dysfunction and its risk factors in gynaecological cancer patients in Hospital Sultanah Bahiyah, Alor Star, Malaysia. Sexual function of eighty-three gynaecological cancer patients who were married were assessed with self-rated MVFSFI (Malay version Female Sexual Function Index). Self-rated WHOQOL-BREF (World Health Organization- Quality of Life- 26) which assessed the domains of quality of life was used while MINI (Mini International Neuropsychiatry Interview) was used for diagnosis of major depressive disorder. The prevalence of sexual dysfunction among the married gynaecological cancer patients was 65% (54/83). Sexual dysfunction was significantly associated with low education level (OR 3.055, CI 1.009-9.250), shorter duration of cancer (OR 0.966, CI 0.966- 0.998), ongoing chemotherapy (OR 3.045, CI 1.149-8.067), pain perception (OR 3.230, CI 1.257-8.303), absence of sexual intercourse for more than one month (OR 1.862) and three domains of quality of life such as physical health, psychological health and social relationship (OR 0.942, CI 0.908-0.978; OR 0.955, CI 0.916-0.995; OR 0.933, CI 0.894-0.973, respectively). However, sexual dysfunction was not associated with major depressive disorder (χ2 ² = 1.224, p = 0.268). The prevalence of sexual dysfunction in gynaecological cancer patients was comparable to other studies of similar population. Since, the risk factors of sexual dysfunction in gynaecological cancer patients are multidimensional, the process of assessment and management need to be holistic and patient-oriented.
Iodine is an essential micronutrient for normal physical and mental development. Iodine deficiency is endemic in 130 countries worldwide, including Malaysia. This is a cross-sectional study done to determine the prevalence and risk factors of iodine dejiciency among 342 rural mothers attending antenatal clinics in Bachok, Kelantan. A self-adrninistered questionnaire on the knowledge, attitudes, practices and other risk factors relating to iodine deficiency was done. Physical examination for thyroid enlargement was carried out and urine samples were taken for urine iodine determination. The prevalence of iodine deficiency based on urine iodine Q level of less than 100 mcg/l was 63.0 % (95% CI: 57.8, 68.2). The mean urinary iodine level was 87.3 mcg/l with a median of 78.0 mcg/l. However, the goiter prevalence was only 9.4%. The total mean scores of knowledge, attitudes and practices were generally low at 58.6 (SD 7.9), 52.9 (SD 7.9) and 42.9 (SD 10.9) respectively. Logistic regression analysis found that a smoking husband is a risk for iodine deficiency (OR=2.0). In conclusion, iodine deficiency disorders among rural antenatal mothers were still prevalent in Bachok. Their level of knowledge on the causes, effects, prevention and clinical presentations of Q iodine deficiency disorders were poor. In addition, having a husband who is a smoker increases the risk of the antenatal mothers developing iodine denciency.
Study site: Antenatal clinic (klinik kesihatan), Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
Limited studies on prevalence and risk factors of Premature Coronary Artery Disease (PCAD) were done in Malaysia, primarily on lipid profile. This cross sectional study aims to identify any changing patterns in prevalence and risk factors of Premature CAD between 2000 and 2012. From 2000 to 2012 we included 21862 patients who underwent the first Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI). Analysis of risk factors was done to 1660 and 2098 patients from year 2007 and 2012 respectively. Age of less than 45 years was taken as PCAD. Data was collected from PCI database of National Heart Institute (NHI), NHI TrakCare System, and patients’ medical records. PCAD significantly decreased from 18.8% (2000) to 11.6% (2012). Malay ethnicity showed increasing trend over the years from 55.1% to 66.9%. Multiple logistic regression analysis in 2007 showed that smoking had the higher risk (AOR=2.52), followed by male gender (AOR=2.06), family history of PCAD (AOR=1.96), Indian ethnicity, (AOR=1.65), triglycerides level (AOR=1.20) and BMI (AOR=1.06). In 2012, family history of PCAD had the highest risk (AOR=2.00) followed by smoking (AOR=1.91) and BMI (AOR=1.11). There are changes in risk factors patterns of premature CAD between 2007 and 2012. Most of them are preventable at earlier stage.
The objective of this study was to describe the differences in physical activity with socio-demographic factors and its association with cardiovascular risk factors. It was a cross-sectional study among selected urban and rural Malays communities in Kuching and Samarahan. Physical activity data was obtained using International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short version. Assessment of cardiovascular risk factors was based on blood pressure, fasting cholesterol and glucose and body mass index (BMI). Data was analysed using SPSS version 20. A total of 223 participated with higher response from rural areas (60.1%) and females (61.9%). More than half of the respondents (58.5%) were overweight and obese, with a mean BMI of 25.9 kg/m2 (SD=4.9). About 25% of the respondents were found to have blood pressure in the at-risk range. The prevalence of at-risk blood glucose was 52.3% with a mean value of 7.3mmol/L (SD=3.46). The prevalence of at-risk cholesterol were lower with 31.8%, mean value of 3.5 mmol/L (SD=2.94). There were more active respondents living in rural area (p=0.02). Logistics regression analysis showed that urban area (OR=1.988 95% CI 1.082 to 3.652), systolic blood pressure (OR1.020 95% CI 1.003 to 1.037) and blood cholesterol (OR0.884 95% CI 0.785 to 0.996) were associated with physical activity level. Change of physical activity due to urbanization can increase the risk of obesity and other chronic diseases. Efforts to include physical activity in intervention programme should be more intensified, with more provision of suitable built environment.
Obesity is a well-established risk factor for coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancers of the breast, colon, prostate and other organs. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of obesity and associated factors among university staffs. Methods: A cross sectional study was carried out among university staffs of University Putra Malaysia using a self-administered validated pre-tested questionnaire. Weight was measured using a digital bathroom scale (TANITA Model HD 319) and height was measured using a SECA Body Meter Model 206. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters (kg/m2). A p value of
Background: Sensitisation to house dust mite (HDM) has been regarded as a major risk factor for development of asthma. This study was carried out to investigate the profiles of HDM sensitisation among Malaysian children with asthma.
Material and Methods: The association between HDM sensitisation and control and severity of asthma was investigated. The salivary HDM specific IgE levels were quantified in different grades of control and severity of asthma in 125 unselected asthmatic children aged 5-12 years old attending the asthma follow-up clinic in Hospital Tuanku Ja’afar Seremban. An additional 29 non-asthmatic patients were selected as control. The skin prick test to assess sensitisation to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (DP) and Dermatophagoides farinae (DF) was performed on all the participants. A questionnaire regarding the control and severity of asthmatic symptoms of the subject was administered. Saliva was collected by voluntary spitting and ELISA was used to quantify the IgE specific to HDM antigen.
Results: There was a significant association between sensitisation to DP and DF and the control of asthma. The association between DP sensitisation and severity of asthma just failed to reach a significant level although there is a clear trend for this. Significant association was found between DF sensitisation and severity. The HDM specific IgE in the saliva was significantly higher in asthmatic patients compared to non-asthmatic patients. There was no significant difference between the specific IgE levels in patients with different severity status of asthma.
Conclusion: Salivary IgE levels may not be an appropriate indicator of the patients’ asthmatic condition in this study. However, it can be concluded that there is significant association between the sensitisation of HDM and the control and severity of asthma.
Study site: Asthma clinic, Hospital Tuanku Jaafar, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate the magnitude, clinical course and risk factors of cholestasis in surviving very low birth weight (VLBW) infants who received parenteral nutrition at the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of Hospital Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Cholestasis was defined as direct hyperbilirubinaemia of >34 mmol/L. Between 1St July 2000 to 31St March 2001, 58 VLBW infants received parenteral nutrition (PN). Forty seven infants survived to discharge. Complete data was obtained from 43 (90.1%) infants. Thirteen (30.2%) of these infants developed cholestasis. The cholestasis persisted beyond the age of 6 weeks in 8 infants and they underwent hepato imino diacetic acid (HIDA) scan. The HIDA scan was reported as normal in 2 infants and inconclusive in 6 infants. Operative cholangiography. (OTC) was then performed in these infants and were all normal. The cholestasis finally resolved in all infants. Analysis of risk factors revealed that duration of assisted ventilation and PN and the presence of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) had significant correlation with the development of cholestasis. These factors together with lower mean gestational age increased the likelihood of persistent cholestasis beyond 6 weeks of life in these infants. In conclusion cholestasis is common in VLBW infants who received parenteral nutrition. Although the clinical course seems benign, in a significant proportion of these infants it may persist longer and put them at increased risk of requiring invasive investigations.
A cross sectional study to determine the exposure of heat and its biological effects on the workers in a plastic factory located in the Shah Alam Industrial Estate, Selangor, Malaysia. Forty five respondents from the polymer section in the factory were selected as the respondents. Variables measured were the environmental temperature (WBGTin), air velocity, relative humidity, body temperature, average heart and recovery heart rate. QUESTEMP°34 Area Heat Stress Monitor was used to measure the environmental temperature in °C (WBGTin) and relative humidity (%). Velocicheck Model TSI 8830 was used to measure the air velocity in meter per second (m/s) while the OMRON Blood Pressure Monitor Model T3, was used to measure average heart rate and recovery heart rate. Body temperature (°C) was measured by the Instant Ear Thermometer-OMRON Gentle Temperature Model MC509. Interviews using questionnaires were used to determine respondents’ socioeconomic background, previous risk factors on heat exposure and other information related to heat stress. Results showed that the mean environmental temperature for the exposed group was 28.75°C, the mean air velocity was 0.15 m/s and the mean relative humidity was 58.1%. These production workers were exposed occasionally to heat when loading plastic powder into the molds as well as demolding the finished plastic products from the molds. The average time of monitoring was 2 hours for intermittent exposure and 8 hours duration for overall exposure. Maximum demand for work load was measured 1 minute after work activities were stopped at the demolding section. There was a significant difference between body temperature and average heart rate before work, after 2 hours of work and after 8 hours of work ( p < 0.001). The mean recovery heart rate after 1 min was 88.0 ± 12.0 beat per min. (bpm), indicating that there is no excessive physiological demand. Body temperature (36.8 ± 0.40°C) and average heart rate after 8 hours (78 ± 12 bpm) indicated a good body control of heat exposure. Five out of six workplaces monitored had temperatures of greater than 28°C (ACGIH TLV). The workers were exposed to moderate heat stress during the study period, however, body temperature and average heart rate measurement did not reach unacceptable level of physiologic strain.
An audit of Diabetes Control and Management-Diabetes Registry Malaysia (ADCM-DRM) was started to monitor the provision of diabetes care in the country. A total of 20,646 patients were registered in the registry until 31st December 2008. This report set out to determine the Type 2 diabetes controls and treatment profiles of these cohorts of patients. This was a registry-based observational study conducted from May to December, 2008. An online standard case record form was available for site data providers to register their diabetic patients aged 18 years old and above annually. Demographic data, diabetes duration, treatment modalities, as well as various risk factors and diabetes complications were reported. Data were analyzed using Data Analysis and Statistical Software (Stata) version 9. A total of 81 centres, 6 of which were hospitals, participated in this registry until 31st December 2008, contributing a total of 20646 patients. A majority of them (99.2%) had Type 2 diabetes mellitus. The mean HbA1c was 8.0% (SD 2.10), with 30.1% and 17.9% of the patients who attained HbA1c < 7% and HbA1c < 6.5%, respectively. Metformin was prescribed more than sulfonylurea while only 11% had insulin. A review of the diabetic care policy and strategies in the primary health care clinics is needed to implement a more effective treatment of diabetes in this country.
A study was carried out on 79 female telephone operators working in a Telecommunication Centre in Kuala Lumpur to determine the prevalence of Work Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULD) and its risk factors. Data collection for this study was done between December 2000 and May 2001. The presence of WRULD was determined based on a guided questionnaire and physical examination. The response rate for this study was 94.9% (n= 75) and results showed that the prevalence of WRULD among the female telephone operators was 48.0%: Stage 1= 38.9%, Stage 2= 19.4%, Stage 3= 38.9%, Stage 4= 0% and Stage 5= 2.8%. In the telecommunication centre, it was found that those with WRULD had a mean of 11.59±9.09 years of employment duration whereas those without WRULD had a mean of 9.89 ± 8.48 years of employment duration. None of the factors studied such as Body Mass Index, age, ethnicity, menstrual cycle, hormone replacement therapy, overtime work, duration of employment in the present unit and in the telecommunication center differ in distribution between subjects with and without WRULD. This could be contributed by factors such as small number of subjects or the common healthy worker effect found in occupational health research. The findings studied of this study show that almost 40.0% of the workers experienced pain and neurological symptoms. Since none of the factors was found to be associated with WRULD, an elaborate study with a case-control design is needed in order to match cases and enable researchers to control the effect of confounding factors. This will ensure risk factors pertinent to WRULD in the Malaysian setting to be identified.
One of the most important cervical cancer risk factors is human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. The p53 gene is one of the most important targets of the HPV E6 gene. E6 protein has the ability to stimulate p53 degradation, inhibits several functions of wild-type p53 and it competes with its function including suppression of malignant growth. The aim of this study is to determine the differences in p53 expressions in pre-malignant and malignant cervical neoplasms. This is a retrospective study on 100 cases of cervical neoplasms. There were 21 cases of CIN 1, 8 cases of CIN 2, 25 cases of CIN 3, 36 cases of squamous cell carcinoma, 7 cases of adenocarcinoma and 3 cases of adenosquamouscarcinoma. All cases were evaluated by immunohistochemistry using p53 monoclonalantibody. Thirty six of the 54 pre-malignant cases (66.7%) were positive for p53 protein, n contrast to the malignant cases in which, 40 of the 46 cases (87.0%) were positive. he majority of CIN showed absent to focal staining (29/54, 53.7%). In contrast, 84.8% (39/46( of the invasive carcinoma showed regional to diffuse staining. The expression of p53 is greater in the malignant cervical neoplasms than the pre-malignant cervical lesions, suggesting that p53 overexpression is not an early phenomenon in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer. It is also shown to be slightly higher in percentage in CIN 2 and 3 when compared with CIN 1. However, a number of cases were p53 negative, suggesting that other factors may be involved and further HPV studies are indicated.
Dental caries is an important community dental health problem with limited studies in the mixed dentition stage. The aim of this study was to determine the caries prevalence and treatment needs among 7- 9 year old school children in Kelantan which is situated in North East Malaysia. A retrospective dental record review of fully documented dental records belonging to primary school children attending a paediatric dental clinic was conducted. Dental caries was recorded using dmft index and DMFT index for deciduous teeth and permanent teeth respectively. Three hundred and nineteen dental records of 175 (54.9%) boys’ and 144 (45.1%) girls’ were selected and subjected to a ‘dental record study’. The prevalence of dental caries was 93% (95% CI : 89,97) in primary dentition and 50.5% (95% CI : 42.2, 58.8) in permanent teeth. Mean dmft and DMFT was 6.2(SD 3.39) and 1.04(SD 1.34) respectively. Regarding treatment needs in the primary dentition, 35.4% of teeth needed one surface filling, 34.7% needed extraction, 24.5% needed two or more surfaces filling and 5.6% needed pulp care. In the permanent dentition, 54.7% required sealants and 21.9% required one surface restoration. The caries prevalence and treatment needs were high among this study population in the mixed dentition stage, particularly showing the early involvement of newly erupted permanent teeth. It appears that high caries prevalence in the primary dentition is a risk factor for caries in newly erupted permanent teeth. Oral health promotions programmes are required in the mixed dentition stage and may reduce the risk of caries in permanent dentition.
Hypertension and smoking are established and independent risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. There are important inter-relationships between these two factors that may explain the aetiology of coronary heart disease. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of hypertension and smoking in a rural community setting in Malaysia, and to identify their associated factors. A cross sectional study was conducted among residents aged 15 years and above in Mukim Dengkil, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia from June to October 1999. Systematic random sampling was used to select the respondents. Results: Five-hundred and seventy respondents agreed to participate giving a response rate of 86.7%. The overall prevalence of hypertension was 26.8%. The prevalence was 31.7% among males, and 23.5% among females. Factors found to be significantly associated with hypertension were males and age. The overall prevalence of smoking was 21.2%. The prevalence among males was 48.7%, where as the prevalence was only 2.6% among females. The factors associated with smoking were males, ethnicity with Malays showing the highest prevalence of 27.2% and age. However, there was no significant association between hypertension and smoking. The prevalence of hypertension in this study is high. However, the prevalence of smoking in this study was slightly lower compared to the result found by the 2nd Malaysian National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS2).
Introduction: Diabetes is associated with a high risk of cardiovascular disease. The management of blood glucose, dyslipidaemia and other modifiable risk factor, is a key element in the multifactorial approach to prevent complications of type 2 diabetes. Materials and Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the level of glycaemic control, lipid profile, blood pressure and body weight status among type 2 diabetics in rural Malaysia. A total of 237 diabetic subjects participated in this study. Physical examination was carried out, including measurements of height, weight, waist and hip circumferences, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Fasting venous blood samples were collected to determine the glucose level and lipid profile. Results: About 70% of the subjects had a high body mass index (BMI), equal to or above 25 kg/m2. More than 60% of the subjects had systolic blood pressure >= 140 mmHg and/or diastolic >=90 mmHg. Mean fasting blood glucose was 9.84±4.54 mmol/L. Mean total cholesterol was 5.18±1.35 mmol/L. High density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) and triglyceride (TG) and glucose levels were higher in male than in female, but not statistically significant (p>0.05). However, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) was higher in females than males (p