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Chitosan and Its Derivatives in Nanocarrier Based Pulmonary Drug Delivery Systems

Dua K

Pharm Nanotechnol, 2017 Aug 07.
PMID: 28786352 DOI: 10.2174/2211738505666170808095258

BACKGROUND: Respiratory tract being a non-invasive route of drug administration is gaining massive attention in the present time to achieve both local and the systemic effects. In order to achieve effective therapeutic effects of a drug in the pulmonary region, it requires challenging barriers like mucociliary clearance and uptake by macrophages. An effective drug delivery system delivers the therapeutically active moieties at the right time, rate and in a reproducible manner to target sites for the effectively the human illnesses. A major limitation associated with most of the currently available conventional and controlled release drug delivery devices is that not all the drug candidates are well absorbed uniformly locally or systemically.
METHODS: We searched for the chitosan and its derivatives based nanocarrier systems for the pulmonary drug delivery. We focused on the applications of chitosan in the development of nanoparticles for the pulmonary drug delivery.
RESULTS: Chitosan, a natural linear bio poly amino saccharide is playing a crucial role in the development of novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) such as nanoparticles in order to treat various respiratory diseases effectively by managing these difficulties due to its unique characteristic properties of biodegradability, biocompatibility, mucoadhesivity and its ability to enhance macromolecule permeation. It also aids in providing sustained and targeted effects, which are the primary requirements of an ideal pulmonary drug delivery system. This review highlights the applications and importance of chitosan with special emphasis on nanotechnology, particularly employed in various respiratory diseases such as asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), lung cancer and pulmonary fibrosis.
CONCLUSIONS: This review will be of interest to both the biological and formulation scientists to have a quick snapshot on the utility of chitosan in pulmonary drug delivery systems. At present, there are no patented chitosan based controlled release products available with pulmonary drug delivery and therefore this area needs attention to explore the potential of this polymer in the area of respiratory research.
Fulltext Dispensary separation: perceptions of the public visiting primary care clinics in Malaysia

Kamal Kenny, Madhavan, Priya

Malaysian Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 2018;16(1):23-35.
MyJurnal

Over the years, the rights of pharmacists as health care professionals have been a controversial topic in the medical field. Pharmacists worldwide have always been independent in being able to practice medicine in their own way and have been given exclusive dispensing rights to distribute drugs and medicines to patients. In Malaysia, however, this is not the case. The overwhelming opinion has been that pharmacists are losing their dispensing rights because doctors are earning more. The current study was carried out in view of recent debates regarding the implementation of a dispensary separation policy in Malaysia. The main objective of this study was to gain an understanding of the views of and challenges experienced by the public in regards to the implementation of this type of policy. The overall results of this study show that dispensing rights are still viewed with mixed feelings. Study subjects reported believing that pharmacists were capable of dispensing medication but that they lack the confidence to make changes within the existing system. When their conditions were not severe, respondents indicated that they preferred the old system where doctors prescribe them with medicine and they subsequently visit the pharmacy. In conclusion, the majority of interview participants were of the opinion that maintaining the current system would benefit them holistically. In this study, input from a total of 929 respondents was gathered via a structured survey conducted throughout Malaysia. The study findings were also supported by data obtained during interviews carried out with 350 informants regarding their views of the implementation of dispensary separation in Malaysia
Taburan Formasi Semantan Semenanjung Malaysia (Semantan Formation Distribution in Peninsular Malaysia)

Kamal Roslan Mohamed

Sains Malaysiana, 1996;25.

The Semantan Formation which is Middle to Upper Triassic age, comprises a rapidly alternating sequence of carbonaceous shale, siltstone and rhyolite tuff with a few lenses of chert, conglomerate and recrystallised limestone. The shale and tuff make up the bulk of the sequence. Jaafar Ahmad (1976) was introduced the formation name of the rock sequence in Karak-Temerloh area, but the similar sequence (in term of lithology, paleontology and structural pattern) found in the other areas were given different names. After an extensive study, the following formations or part of them, may be include in the Semantan Formation; Raub Series (Scrivenor 1911); Calcareous Formation (Richardson 1939); Calcareous Series (Richardson 1947); Younger arenaceous Series (Alexander 1956); Raub Group (Alexander 1959); Jengka Pass Formation (Ichikawa et al. 1966); Kerdau Formation (Burton 1973a); part of Jelai Formation (Burton 1973a); Gemas Formation (Lum 1977); Jurong Formation (Burton 1973a); Pahang Volcanic Series (Hutchison 1973c).
Formasi Semantan merupakan jujukan batuan sedimen yang berusia Trias Tengah - Akhir di Jalur Tengah Semenanjung Malaysia. Jujukan ini terdiri daripada selang lapis batuan syal berkarbon, batu lodak, dan batu pasir yang kebanyakannya bertuf, serta terdapat kekanta konglomerat, batu kapur dan rijang dalam selang lapis ini. Syal adalah unit yang paling dominan dalam formasi ini. Jaafar Ahmad (1976) menamakan jujukan ini untuk kawasan Karak - Temerloh, tetapi jujukan yang serupa (dari segi litologi, paleontologi dan gaya struktur) juga ditemui di kawasan lain, tetapi dipanggil dengan nama lain. Dari hasil kajian menyeluruh yang telah dijalankan, didapati nama-nama unit batuan berikut atau sebahagian daripadanya mungkin merupakan penamaan yang serupa untuk Formasi Semantan, iaitu Siri Raub (Scrivenor 1911), Formasi Berkapur (Richardson 1939), Siri Berkapur (Richardson 1947), Siri Arenit Muda (Alexander 1958), sebahagian Kumpulan Raub (Alexander 1959), Formasi Jengka Pass (Ichikawa et al. 1966), Formasi Kerdau (Burton 1973a), sebahagian Formasi Jelai (Burton 1973a), Formasi Gemas (Lum 1977), Formasi Jurong (Burton 1973a) dan Siri Volkano Pahang (Hutchison 1973).
New classification for lithostratigraphy of the singa formation in Langkawi, Kedah, Malaysia

Mohamad Hanif Kamal Roslan, Che Aziz Ali, Kamal Roslan Mohamed

Sains Malaysiana, 2018;47:2251-2258.

Semakan semula litostratigrafi Formasi Singa dilakukan berdasarkan data-data baru yang diperoleh melalui kajian
terbaru. Secara umumnya, Formasi Singa dominan dengan batu lumpur hitam yang berselang lapis dengan batu pasir
nipis hingga sederhana tebal serta sedikit lapisan konglomerat. Kajian melibatkan analisis terhadap beberapa log
sedimen yang telah direkodkan di lapangan. Kesemua log sedimen tersebut telah dikorelasikan untuk mendapatkan satu
log komposit yang mewakili keseluruhan Formasi Singa. Berdasarkan kajian terperinci korelasi litologi yang dilakukan,
cadangan litostratigrafi baru Formasi Singa mengandungi empat ahli iaitu Ahli Kentut, Ahli Ular, Ahli Selang dan Ahli
Lembung. Ahli Kentut merupakan ahli yang paling tua diikuti dengan Ahli Ular, Ahli Selang dan Ahli Lembung. Ahli
Ular di dalam Formasi Singa dianggap sebagai satu unit kekanta antara Ahli Kentut dengan Ahli Selang. Beberapa
siri perubahan paras laut ditafsirkan sepanjang pengendapan batuan Formasi Singa dipercayai akibat daripada proses
pencairan glasier yang menyebabkan paras laut meningkat dan pengendapan berterusan yang menyebabkan lembangan
menjadi cetek dan paras laut menjadi rendah.
Fasies dan sekitaran sedimen formasi singa di Langkawi, Malaysia

Mohamad Hanif Kamal Roslan, Che Aziz Ali, Kamal Roslan Mohamed

Sains Malaysiana, 2016;45:1897-1904.

Batuan Formasi Singa yang terdiri daripada batu lumpur dominan, berselang lapis dengan batu lodak, batu pasir dan
juga sedikit unit konglomerat tertabur secara meluas di kepulauan Langkawi. Formasi Singa boleh dibahagikan kepada
sepuluh fasies sedimen dan empat sekutuan fasies. Keputusan kajian menunjukkan Formasi Singa telah terendap di
lautan cetek, iaitu di sub-sekitaran luar pesisir, transisi, muka pesisir serta dalam alur. Lautan cetek Lembangan Singa
dipengaruhi oleh iklim sejuk kerana terdapat sedimen asalan glasier, iaitu fasies batu lumpur berpebel. Kertas kerja ini
akan menjelas dan membincangkan segala aspek sedimentologi formasi batuan ini.
Fulltext Pembiayaan wakaf di Majlis Agama Islam negeri terpilih: potensi pelaksanaan di peringkat institusi pengajian tinggi

Asiah Kamal, Azizi Che Seman

TAFHIM : IKIM Journal of Islam and the Contemporary World, 2017;10(1):151-185.
MyJurnal

This article discusses several potential waqf instruments in higher education. It examines the potential financing instruments of higher education in using waqf instruments in the development of waqf at the State Islamic Religious Council (MAIN). This study was conducted by interviewing five Islamic Religious Council (MAIWP), Selangor Wakaf Corporation (PWS), Negeri Sembilan Wakaf Corporation (PWNS), Johor State Islamic Council MAINJ) and Penang State Islamic Religious Council (MAINPP). As commonly known, MAIN is the sole trustee of a waqf estate in the country. Therefore, the instruments that have been implemented in MAIN are more practical for higher education. In addition, the discussions in this article also put forward several proposals to realise waqf instruments in higher education.
Fulltext Radiological changes in bronchial asthma

Zulkifli A, Kamal AA

Med J Malaysia, 1980 Dec;35(2):164-5.
PMID: 7266412

This study was proposed to identify specific radiological appearances in Malaysian patients with bronchial asthma. All consecutive patients, seen in the Medical Unit, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia between 1976 and 1979, satisfying the American Thoracic Society [1962] criteria for bronchial asthma formed the subjects of this study. Analysis of 207 patients led to the following conclusion. There are specific radiological changes present in a proportion of bronchial asthmatics during the acute episode. These changes are more frequent in the younger age group and in those in which the age of onset are early, The duration of asthma seems to have some bearing to the radiological changes.
Fulltext Motivation influence towards physical activity level among university staff

Kamal AA, Radzani M

Movement Health & Exercise, 2016;5(1):49-56.
MyJurnal

Levels of physical activity are usually affected by a high motivational factor. There are many internal and external motivational factors. Less physical activity or a sedentary lifestyle can be defined as movement of the body equal to the minimum rest metabolic rate. It also refers to passive physical behavior such as watching television, reading, using a computer, talking on the phone, driving a car, meditating, or eating. This study was conducted to determine and investigate the motivational factors that influence participation in sports and physical activities. A survey questionnaire based on the "Exercise Motivation Inventory" (EMI-2) and the "International Physical Activity Questionnaire" (IPAQ) was developed to meet the needs of the study. This study looked at the relationship between motivational factors and the level of physical activity and sports participation among university staff, who involved in their daily lives. Findings that showed university staff were more motivated to perform moderate physical activity in daily life. The motives for physical activity are both in terms of appearance and social factors. Inferential analysis indicated no significant difference in terms of the motives for employee engagement in physical activity and status based on weight. Correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between physical activity and body weight among staff. There was no significant relationship between participation motives and physical activity among employees.
Current vision of systemic autoimmune diseases - from diagnosis to management

Islam A, Kamal MA

Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets, 2018 02 13;18(2):96-97.
PMID: 29508678 DOI: 10.2174/187153031802180213144657
Fulltext Hypopigmented patches in an 8-year-old boy

Malek KA, Kamal WW

Malays Fam Physician, 2018;13(1):49-51.
PMID: 29796212 MyJurnal

An 8-year-old boy presents with asymptomatic hypopigmented patches on his bilateral cheeks which
have been worsening for two weeks. The patches are oval in shape and have spared other parts of the
body. There is no preceding erythematous rash. Similar lesions appeared two years ago which took
several months to resolve. There are no recent triggers, such as personal care products. He has no history
of atopy, but his mother has a recent history of atopic eczema. There is no known history of thyroid
problems in the family. He was prescribed a topical cream from a general practitioner, but the patches
persisted, and new patches appeared. He is otherwise well and actively participating in outdoor physical
activities with frequent sun exposure. (Copied from article).
Fulltext The relationship between extrinsic motivation and physical activity level among students

Kamal AA, Zulkifli AF

Movement Health & Exercise, 2019;8(1):145-156.
MyJurnal

Nowadays, people have realized that physical activity plays a critical role in determining the health and wellness of an individual. This is proven by the extensive research on this area, which indicates that people have started to emphasize this matter. In addition, it is also well known that motivation is one of the main factors that determine whether people will participate in performing physical activity or not. Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators play a major role in determining levels of physical activity. Therefore, this study is made to investigate the relationship between extrinsic motivation and physical activity level. The researcher randomly selected 195 students from SMK Alam Megah 2, Seksyen 28, Shah Alam, Selangor as respondents for this study. The method of this study includes a questionnaire adapted from International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI), which was edited to fulfil the requirements of this study. The results from this study show that there is a positive and significant relationship between extrinsic motivation and physical activity.
Fulltext Socioeconomic Correlates of Contraceptive Use among the Ethnic Tribal Women of Bangladesh: Does Sex Preference Matter?

Kamal SM, Hassan CH

J Family Reprod Health, 2013 Jun;7(2):73-86.
PMID: 24971107

Objective: To examine the relationship between socioeconomic factors affecting contraceptive use among tribal women of Bangladesh with focusing on son preference over daughter.
Materials and methods: The study used data gathered through a cross sectional survey on four tribal communities resided in the Rangamati Hill District of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. A multistage random sampling procedure was applied to collect data from 865 currently married women of whom 806 women were currently married, non-pregnant and had at least one living child, which are the basis of this study. The information was recorded in a pre-structured questionnaire. Simple cross tabulation, chi-square tests and logistic regression analyses were performed to analyzing data.
Results: The contraceptive prevalence rate among the study tribal women was 73%. The multivariate analyses yielded quantitatively important and reliable estimates of likelihood of contraceptive use. Findings revealed that after controlling for other variables, the likelihood of contraceptive use was found not to be significant among women with at least one son than those who had only daughters, indicating no preference of son over daughter. Multivariate logistic regression analysis suggests that home visitations by family planning workers, tribal identity, place of residence, husband's education, and type of family, television ownership, electricity connection in the household and number of times married are important determinants of any contraceptive method use among the tribal women.
Conclusion. The contraceptive use rate among the disadvantaged tribal women was more than that of the national level. Door-step delivery services of modern methods should be reached and available targeting the poor and remote zones.
Keywords: Bangladesh, Contraceptive use, Ethnic tribal women, Sex preference, Logistic regression
Fulltext Bridging the gap between adolescent sexuality and HIV risk: the urban Malaysian perspective

Ng CJ, Kamal SF

Singapore Med J, 2006 Jun;47(6):482-90.
PMID: 16752016

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to qualitatively explore adolescents' sexuality and their relation to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk in Malaysia.
METHODS: This study was conducted in 2002 among 16 male and female private college students aged between 18 and 22 years old, all of whom were sexually active. Semi-structured individual interviews were carried out.
RESULTS: There were definite differences in gender roles in terms of how adolescents perceived sex, selection of sex partners and communication with their partners. Definitions of stable and casual relationships differed between males and females. Most participants were concerned about pregnancy rather than sexually transmitted diseases or HIV infection when they interpreted safe sex. Reasons for not practising safe sex include trust between sex partners, complacency, low perception of risk, and negative attitudes towards condom use.
CONCLUSION: These findings were closer to those observed in the developed countries. The findings from this study will serve as a guide to plan for local adolescent health education. It can also serve as a basis for more in-depth quantitative and qualitative research on adolescent sexuality.
Study site: Students, private colleges, Klang Valley, Malaysia
Child marriage and its association with adverse reproductive outcomes for women in Bangladesh

Kamal SM, Hassan CH

Asia Pac J Public Health, 2015 Mar;27(2):NP1492-506.
PMID: 24097938 DOI: 10.1177/1010539513503868

This study examines the prevalence of child marriage and its effect on reproductive outcomes among women in Bangladesh using the most recent 2011 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey data. Both bivariate and multivariate statistical techniques used in the study yielded quantitatively important and reliable estimates of child marriage and its impact on adverse reproductive and health outcomes. Overall, 77% of the marriages among women aged 20 to 49 years old took place before the age of 18 years. Women's education is the most single significant determinant of child marriage. Findings revealed that after being adjusted for sociodemographic factors, child marriage significantly (P < .001) increases the likelihood of stillbirth/miscarriage (odds ratio [OR] = 1.80; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.45-2.24) and pregnancy termination (OR = 1.24; 95% CI = 1.12-1.38). Programs should aim to retain girls in school for longer periods not only to raise the age at first marriage but also for sound reproductive health and overall social development of Bangladesh.
Diagenesis dan Asal Mula Dolomit dan Kuarza di dalam Batu Kapur Kodiang, Kedah (Diagenetic and Origin of Dolomite and Quartz in Kodiang Limestone, Kedah)

Che Aziz Ali, Kamal Roslan Mohamed

Sains Malaysiana, 1996;25(4):47-68.

The Kodiang Formation which outcrops in Kodiang and Alor Setar areas has been well studied and documented. Various geological aspects of the limestone formation have been reported in detail including its stratigraphy, sequence startigraphy, sedimentology and paleontology. Diagenetic aspect of this rock formation, however, had not been specifically discussed before. The Kodiang limestone has undergone a complicated diagenetic history which started immediately after the sediments were laid down on the sea bed. Various diagenetic products have been identified including, early marine cement, meteoric cement, and deeper subsurface cement. The diagenetic features identified are as follows; Fibrous calcite cement, sparry and poikilotopic calcites, calcite overgrowth, dolomite, silica cements and evaporites. Close examination at outcrops shows that dolomite occurs at several levels in the sequence. Their systematic occurrences can be correlated across the area. Petrographic studies show that dolomite occurs in several modes as stratified dolomite and as non-stratified dolomite. The two dolomite groups are attributed to two phases of dolomitizations. The stratified dolomites are interpreted to have been formed early in the limestone diagenetic history. The non-stratified dolomite type is, however, attributed to dolomitization during deep burial under the control of deeper subsurface physico-chemical conditions.
Batu Kapur Kodiang yang tersingkap di Kodiang dan Alor Setar telah banyak dikaji dan didokumentasikan. Berbagai aspek geologi formasi batu kapur ini telah dilaporkan termasuk stratigrafi, startigrafi jujukan, sedimentologi dan paleontologi. Walau bagaimanapun aspek diagenesis formasi batuan ini tidak pernah dibincangkan secara khusus. Batu kapur Kodiang ini telah melalui sejarah diagenesis yang rumit yang bermula sebaik saja sedimen dimendapkan di atas permukaan dasar laut. Berbagai hasil diagenesis telah dikenal pasti termasuk penyimenan samudera awal, penyimenan meterorik dan penyimenan di bawah permukaan yang lebih dalam. Secara asas fitur-fitur yang dikenalpasti adalah seperti berikut; simen kalsit berserat, kalsit spar dan poikilotopik, tumbuhlampau kalsit, dolomit, simen silika dan evaporit. Pemeriksaan rapi pada singkapan menunjukkan dolomit hadir pada beberapa aras di dalam jujukan. Kehadirannya secara bersistematik boleh dikorelasikan pada setiap singkapan. Kajian petrografi menunjukkan dolomit wujud dalam berbagai mod yang boleh diklaskan sebagai dolomit berstrata dan dolomit tidak berstrata. Dua klas ini boleh dikaitkan dengan dua fasa pendolomitan. Dolomit berstrata ditafsirkan telah terbentuk awal di dalam sejarah diagenesis batu kapur. Dolomit tidak berstrata pula dikaitkan dengan pendolomitan semasa timbusan dalam di bawah keadaan fiziko-kimia bawah permukaan.
Fulltext Overliming effects on xylitol production from sago trunk hydrolysate

Mohamad, N.L., Mustapa Kamal, S.M., Abdullah, A.G.L.

Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, 2011;19(2):415-422.
MyJurnal

Xylitol can be obtained from lignocellulosic materials containing xylose. However, the fraction of lignocellulose converted through dilute acid hydrolysis contains compounds that inhibit the fermenting micro-organisms. These inhibitors can be removed from the hydrolysate by detoxification method, prior to fermentation. This study describes effectiveness of overliming process to reduce the toxicity of hydrolysates generated from pre-treatment of sago trunk for xylitol production. The overliming pH 9 and 10 was studied and the results showed that pH 9 was showed 20% of sugar loss, which is low compared to pH 10. Candida tropicalis strain was used to evaluate the fermentability of overlimed sago trunk hydrolysate at pH 9 and non-overlimed hydrolysate medium. Meanwhile, Xylitol accumulation and productivity in the overlimed medium was found to be higher than the non-treated medium. The maximum production of xylitol was increased up to 74% and converted within 76 h. The results obtained improved the fermentation process when compared with the nontreated medium.
Fulltext Classification of phishing websites using machine learning techniques

Hadi Zamani, Muhamad Kamal Mohammed Amin

Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology, 2016;5(2):12-19.
MyJurnal

Phishing detection is a momentous problem which can be deliberated by many
researchers with numerous advanced approaches. Current anti-phishing mechanisms
such as blacklist-base anti-phishing, Heuristic-based anti-phishing does suffer low
detection accuracy and high false alarm. There is need for efficient mechanism to
protect users from phishing websites. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
capability of 6 machine learning algorithms i.e. Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), Support
Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), Decision Tree (DT), Logistic Regression
(LR) and Naïve Bayes (NB) to classify phishing and non-phishing websites. These
algorithms were trained with two different groups of training in WEKA environment
and then were tested in terms of accuracy, precision, TP rate, and FP rate on a 3
different sets of dataset which contains dissimilar portion of phishing and non-phishing
instances. Results presented that Naïve Bayes classifier has better detection accuracy
between other classifiers for predicting phishing websites while Multi-Layer
Perceptron gave worst result in terms of detection accuracy. The result also showed
that Support Vector machine has better FP rate between other classifier. In addition,
Random Forest, Decision Tree, and Naïve Bayes can classify all phishing websites as
phishing correctly. It means that TP rate is 100% for these classifiers. In conclusion this
paper suggests using NB as the best classifier for predicting phishing and non-phishing
websites.
Fulltext Stem cell therapy as a potential treatment for glaucoma

Kamal, M., Amini, F., Ramasamy, TS

JUMMEC, 2016;19(1):23-32.
MyJurnal

Glaucoma is a common eye disease that can cause irreversible damage if left undiagnosed and untreated. It is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases causing blindness. Pre-clinical studies have been carried out on animal models of glaucoma for stem cell therapy. We carried out a systematic review to determine whether stem cell therapy had the potential to treat glaucoma. Nine studies were selected based on the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Of these nine studies, eight focused on neuroprotection conferred by stem cells, and the remaining one on neuroregeneration. Results from these studies showed that there was a potential in stem cell based therapy in treating glaucoma, especially regarding neuroprotection via neurotrophic factors. The studies revealed that a brain-derived neurotrophic factor expressed by stem cells promoted the survival of retinal ganglion cells in murine glaucoma models. The transplanted cells survived without any side effects. While these studies proved that stem cells provided neuroprotection in glaucoma, improvement of vision could not be determined. Clinical studies would be required to determine whether the protection of RGC correlated with improvement in visual function. Furthermore, these murine studies could not be translated into clinical therapy due to the heterogeneity of the experimental methods and the
use of different cell lines. In conclusion, the use of stem cells in the clinical therapy of glaucoma will be an important step in the future as it will transform present-day treatment with the hope of restoring sight to patients with glaucoma.
Konglomerat di Jalur Timur: Hubungan Genetik di antara Konglomerat Murau, Pulau Redang, Pulau Kapas dan Bukit Keluang

Che Aziz Ali, Kamal Roslan Mohamed

Sains Malaysiana, 1997;26.

Conglomerates of continental origin are widely distributed in the Eastern Belt of the Malay Peninsular. Murau Conglomerate is the best example. Similar deposits outcrop at Pulau Redang, Pulau Kapas and Bukit Keluang. With an exception of Pulau Redang Conglomerate, similarities in lithologic, sedimentologic and stratigraphic characters of these conglomerates suggested that they can be combined into one group. Their stratigraphic position that is overlying the Upper Paleozoic unconformities reveals that these rock units are representing the basal part of the continental sediments that are found in the Eastern Belt. The sediments have been deposited as early as in the Late Permain and the deposition continued until Triassic. This interpretation is based on the occurrence of the Upper Paleozoic unconformities in the Eastern Belt and also on the age of sediments beneath the unconformities at Pulau Redang. The uplift that gives rise to this unconformity may be attributed to the granite emplacement in the Eastern Belt in the Late Permian-Early Triassic time. This was followed by depositions of the basal conglomerate mentioned above. The basal conglomerates were then overlain by fined grained sediments which are represented by Panti Sandstone, Lotong Sandstone and other equivalent deposits of Jurassic Cretaceous age.
Konglomerat endapan benua banyak tertabur di lalur Timur Semenanjung Malaysia. Konglomerat Murau adalah satu contoh yang terbaik. Konglomerat yang mempunyai, ciri-ciri yang sama terdapat di beberapa lokaliti di Pulau Redang, Pulau Kapas dan Bukit Keluang. Ciri-ciri litologi sedimentologi dan stratigrafi kesemua konglomerat ini mencadangkan bahawa mereka boleh dikumpulkan di dalam satu kumpulan yang. sama kecuali Konglomerat Pulau Redang. Kedudukannya langsung di atas satah ketakselarasan Paleozoik Atas mencadang unit-unit konglomerat ini merupakan bahagian dasar kepada sedimen kebenuaan yang terdapat di Jalur Timur dan mungkin juga di jalur Tengah. Sedimen ini mula terendap semenjak Perm Akhir hingga Trias berdasarkan ketakselarasan yang terdapat di Jalur Timur dan juga usia sedimen di bawah satah ketakselarasan yang terdapat di Pulau Redang. Pengangkatan yang berkaitan mungkin terhasil daripada perejahan granit di Jalur Timur semasa Perm Akhir-Trias Awal. Pengangkatan ini diikuti oleh pemendapan konglomerat dasar yang disebut di atas. Pengenapan seterusnya diikuti oleh sedimen berbutir lebih halus yang menindihnya yang diwakili oleh Batu Pasir Panti, Batu Pasir Lotong dan yang lain-lain yang setara dengannya yang mungkin berusia Jura-Kapur.
Sungai dan Pantai Kuno di Kompleks Delta Kelantan (Old River and Beach at the Kelantan Delta Complex)

Kamal Roslan Mohamed, Che Aziz Ali

Sains Malaysiana, 1996;25.

This study is based on a LANDSAT imagery of 1989, topographic maps and aerial photographs. Several stages of the delta's development have been identified based on the shape and the position of the former delta lobes and channels. The older delta complex shows a cuspate shape and a series of beach ridges in the south marks the position of the former shore lines. There is a clear distinction between the former delta complex and the present day complex. The former lobe shows a characteristic of a wave dominated delta system whilst the present complex is more of a fluvival-dominated type. The change in the delta type is believed to have been caused by the change of physiographic processes in the delta area as well as in the inland area. In the inland area, the Kelantan River has changed its course several times that were followed by delta-lobe switching. At the same time the river mouths migrate progressively towards the northwest. The Kemasin River mouth is the oldest river mouth detected from satellite's imagery and aerial photographs. The rivermouth then migrated to the north and forms the present day Kuala Pak Amat before it migrated further northwest to Pengkalan Datu. The migration of river mouth has led to the change of the deltaic processes. Earlier when the river mouth and the delta complex were located in the south they were subjected to direct wave action. At present most of the delta complex is subjected to the northwesterly longshore currents which have produced a series of sand spits. The presence of the sandspits which are sheltering the river mouth from wave action has led to more current and stream domination on the delta. Some older river channels which form driedÂ up channels and dying streams can be clearly observed in the satellite imagery. There are also some remnant river channels which form elongated lakes and ox-bow lakes. Shapes and locations of the older river systems reveal that the main stream has changed its behavior from a meandering stream to a straight channel river system several times in its history. In the coastal areas, we have traced several older shorelines which had prograded progressively towards the sea. The progradation of shorelines is marked by a series of beach ridges which are parallel to the present day shoreline. The beach ridge can be traced up to 10 km inland from the present day beach line. Several topographic highs (Gunung Panchor and Bukit Marak) are believed to represent small hills or near shore islands during the beginning of the progradation.
Kajian ini dilakukan berdasarkan imej LANDSAT TM tahun 1989, dan dibantu oleh peta topografi serta gambar udara. Beberapa peringkat pembentukan dan perkembangan Delta Kelantan ditafsirkan daripada bentuk dan kedudukan alur-alur dan permatang pantai kuno. Delta lebih tua berbentuk juring ("cuspate") dan beting-beting pasir di bahagian selatannya menandakan arah garis pantai terdahulu. Delta yang lebih tua ini lebih mencirikan delta kuasaan ombak, berbeza dengan delta yang sedang terbentuk sekarang. Perubahan daripada delta kuasaan ombak kepada delta kuasaan sungai terjadi akibat perubahan-perubahan di bahagian daratan dan pesisir pantai. Di bahagian daratan, imej LANDSAT TM menunjukkan Sungai Kelantan telah menukar arah aliran beberapa kali dan ini mengakibatkan perubahan kedudukan muara. Imej yang diperolehi juga menunjukkan terdapat banyak alur-alur sungai tua yang luas tetapi mempunyai aliran yang kecil, ataupun alur-alur yang kering. Selain itu terdapat juga beberapa tasik memanjang dan tasik ladam, hasil tinggalan sungai lampau. Daripada bentuk dan kedudukan alur-alur sungai tua ini, dapat ditafsirkan sungai utama telah berubah berbentuk dari berliku menjadi lurus beberapa kali. Di bahagian pantai pula telah dikesan garis pantai telah berkembang secara progressif ke arah laut (progradasi). Perkembangan garis pantai ditandai oleh permatang pantai yang berkedudukan hampir selari dengan garis pantai sekarang. Permatang pasir ini boleh dikesan hingga 10 km daripada garis pantai sekarang. Pada peringkat awal pembentukan Delta Kelantan, bukit Gunung Panchor (pekan Gunung) dan Bukit Marak merupakan sebuah pulau atau bukit di pesisir pantai sementara kedudukan bandar Kota Bharu masih terletak di laut. Pada masa yang sama muara sungai berhijrah secara berperingkat-peringkat ke arah baratlaut. Muara terawal yang dapat dikesan merupakan muara Sungai Kemasin dan kemudian menghijrah ke muara Pengkalan Datu. Sebelum berubah kepada kedudukan sekarang, muara Sungai Kelantan telah berhijrah daripada Pengkalan Datu ke Kuala Pak Amat. Perubahan kedudukan muara menyebabkan tindakan proses fizikal (rambatan ombak, angin dan arus pantai) berbeza daripada sebelumnya. Pada masa ini sebahagian besar daripada bahagian luar kompleks delta dipengaruhi oleh aliran pesisir pantai yang menghasilkan pembentukan anak tanjung pasir (sand spit) di bahagian pinggir delta. Kehadiran anak tanjung pasir secara langsung melindung kompleks delta daripada tindakan ombak dan menyebabkan pengaruh luahan sungai dan pasang surut lebih dominan di bahagian dalam kompleks.

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