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Integrated global assessment of the natural forest carbon potential

Mo L 1 , Zohner CM 2 , Reich PB 3 , Liang J 4 , de Miguel S 5 , Nabuurs GJ 6 Show all authors , Renner SS 7 , van den Hoogen J 8 , Araza A 6 , Herold M 9 , Mirzagholi L 8 , Ma H 8 , Averill C 8 , Phillips OL 10 , Gamarra JGP 11 , Hordijk I 8 , Routh D 12 , Abegg M 13 , Adou Yao YC 14 , Alberti G 15 , Almeyda Zambrano AM 16 , Alvarado BV 17 , Alvarez-Dávila E 18 , Alvarez-Loayza P 19 , Alves LF 20 , Amaral I 21 , Ammer C 22 , Antón-Fernández C 23 , Araujo-Murakami A 24 , Arroyo L 24 , Avitabile V 25 , Aymard GA 26 , Baker TR 10 , Bałazy R 27 , Banki O 28 , Barroso JG 29 , Bastian ML 30 , Bastin JF 31 , Birigazzi L 32 , Birnbaum P 33 , Bitariho R 34 , Boeckx P 35 , Bongers F 6 , Bouriaud O 36 , Brancalion PHS 37 , Brandl S 38 , Brearley FQ 39 , Brienen R 10 , Broadbent EN 16 , Bruelheide H 40 , Bussotti F 41 , Cazzolla Gatti R 42 , César RG 37 , Cesljar G 43 , Chazdon RL 44 , Chen HYH 45 , Chisholm C 8 , Cho H 46 , Cienciala E 47 , Clark C 48 , Clark D 49 , Colletta GD 50 , Coomes DA 51 , Cornejo Valverde F 52 , Corral-Rivas JJ 53 , Crim PM 54 , Cumming JR 54 , Dayanandan S 55 , de Gasper AL 56 , Decuyper M 6 , Derroire G 57 , DeVries B 58 , Djordjevic I 59 , Dolezal J 60 , Dourdain A 57 , Engone Obiang NL 61 , Enquist BJ 62 , Eyre TJ 63 , Fandohan AB 64 , Fayle TM 65 , Feldpausch TR 66 , Ferreira LV 67 , Finér L 68 , Fischer M 69 , Fletcher C 70 , Frizzera L 71 , Gianelle D 71 , Glick HB 72 , Harris DJ 73 , Hector A 74 , Hemp A 75 , Hengeveld G 6 , Hérault B 76 , Herbohn JL 77 , Hillers A 78 , Honorio Coronado EN 79 , Hui C 80 , Ibanez T 81 , Imai N 82 , Jagodziński AM 83 , Jaroszewicz B 84 , Johannsen VK 85 , Joly CA 86 , Jucker T 87 , Jung I 46 , Karminov V 88 , Kartawinata K 89 , Kearsley E 90 , Kenfack D 91 , Kennard DK 92 , Kepfer-Rojas S 85 , Keppel G 93 , Khan ML 94 , Killeen TJ 24 , Kim HS 95 , Kitayama K 96 , Köhl M 97 , Korjus H 98 , Kraxner F 99 , Kucher D 100 , Laarmann D 98 , Lang M 98 , Lu H 101 , Lukina NV 102 , Maitner BS 62 , Malhi Y 103 , Marcon E 104 , Marimon BS 105 , Marimon-Junior BH 105 , Marshall AR 77 , Martin EH 106 , Meave JA 107 , Melo-Cruz O 108 , Mendoza C 109 , Mendoza-Polo I 110 , Miscicki S 111 , Merow C 44 , Monteagudo Mendoza A 112 , Moreno VS 37 , Mukul SA 77 , Mundhenk P 97 , Nava-Miranda MG 113 , Neill D 114 , Neldner VJ 63 , Nevenic RV 59 , Ngugi MR 63 , Niklaus PA 115 , Oleksyn J 83 , Ontikov P 88 , Ortiz-Malavasi E 17 , Pan Y 116 , Paquette A 117 , Parada-Gutierrez A 24 , Parfenova EI 118 , Park M 4 , Parren M 119 , Parthasarathy N 120 , Peri PL 121 , Pfautsch S 122 , Picard N 123 , Piedade MTF 124 , Piotto D 125 , Pitman NCA 19 , Poulsen AD 73 , Poulsen JR 126 , Pretzsch H 127 , Ramirez Arevalo F 128 , Restrepo-Correa Z 129 , Rodeghiero M 71 , Rolim SG 125 , Roopsind A 130 , Rovero F 131 , Rutishauser E 132 , Saikia P 133 , Salas-Eljatib C 134 , Saner P 135 , Schall P 22 , Schelhaas MJ 6 , Schepaschenko D 99 , Scherer-Lorenzen M 136 , Schmid B 137 , Schöngart J 124 , Searle EB 117 , Seben V 138 , Serra-Diaz JM 139 , Sheil D 119 , Shvidenko AZ 99 , Silva-Espejo JE 140 , Silveira M 141 , Singh J 142 , Sist P 76 , Slik F 143 , Sonké B 144 , Souza AF 145 , Stereńczak KJ 146 , Svenning JC 147 , Svoboda M 148 , Swanepoel B 149 , Targhetta N 124 , Tchebakova N 118 , Ter Steege H 28 , Thomas R 150 , Tikhonova E 102 , Umunay PM 151 , Usoltsev VA 152 , Valencia R 153 , Valladares F 154 , van der Plas F 155 , Van Do T 156 , van Nuland ME 157 , Vasquez RM 112 , Verbeeck H 90 , Viana H 158 , Vibrans AC 56 , Vieira S 159 , von Gadow K 160 , Wang HF 161 , Watson JV 162 , Werner GDA 163 , Wiser SK 164 , Wittmann F 165 , Woell H 166 , Wortel V 167 , Zagt R 168 , Zawiła-Niedźwiecki T 169 , Zhang C 170 , Zhao X 170 , Zhou M 4 , Zhu ZX 161 , Zo-Bi IC 171 , Gann GD 172 , Crowther TW 173

Affiliations 

  • 1 Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), Zurich, Switzerland. lidong.mo@usys.ethz.ch
  • 2 Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), Zurich, Switzerland. constantin.zohner@usys.ethz.ch
  • 3 Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
  • 4 Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
  • 5 Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences and Engineering, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
  • 6 Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
  • 7 Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
  • 8 Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), Zurich, Switzerland
  • 9 Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics Section, Helmholtz GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
  • 10 School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
  • 11 Forestry Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
  • 12 Central IT - Teaching and Research, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
  • 13 Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
  • 14 UFR Biosciences, University Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
  • 15 Department of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
  • 16 Spatial Ecology and Conservation Lab, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
  • 17 Forestry School, Tecnológico de Costa Rica TEC, Cartago, Costa Rica
  • 18 Fundacion ConVida, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia, UNAD, Medellín, Colombia
  • 19 Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
  • 20 Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
  • 21 National Institute of Amazonian Research, Manaus, Brazil
  • 22 Silviculture and Forest Ecology of the Temperate Zones, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
  • 23 Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway
  • 24 Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
  • 25 Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra, Italy
  • 26 Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), UNELLEZ-Guanare, Portuguesa, Venezuela
  • 27 Department of Geomatics, Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Stary, Poland
  • 28 Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
  • 29 Centro Multidisciplinar, Universidade Federal do Acre, Rio Branco, Brazil
  • 30 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
  • 31 TERRA Teaching and Research Centre, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
  • 32 Forestry Consultant, Grosseto, Italy
  • 33 Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien (IAC), Nouméa, New Caledonia
  • 34 Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation, Mbarara University of Science & Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
  • 35 Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
  • 36 Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania
  • 37 Department of Forest Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil
  • 38 Bavarian State Institute of Forestry, Freising, Germany
  • 39 Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
  • 40 Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
  • 41 Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forest (DAGRI), University of Firenze, Florence, Italy
  • 42 Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
  • 43 Department of Spatial Regulation, GIS and Forest Policy, Institute of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia
  • 44 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
  • 45 Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
  • 46 Division of Forest Resources Information, Korea Forest Promotion Institute, Seoul, South Korea
  • 47 IFER - Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research, Jilove u Prahy, Czech Republic
  • 48 Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
  • 49 Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
  • 50 Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
  • 51 Conservation Research Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
  • 52 Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program, Madre de Dios, Peru
  • 53 Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Durango, Mexico
  • 54 Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
  • 55 Biology Department, Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
  • 56 Natural Science Department, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Blumenau, Brazil
  • 57 Cirad, UMR EcoFoG (AgroParisTech, CNRS, INRAE, Université des Antilles, Université de la Guyane), Campus Agronomique, Kourou, French Guiana
  • 58 Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
  • 59 Institute of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia
  • 60 Institute of Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Třeboň, Czech Republic
  • 61 IRET, Herbier National du Gabon (CENAREST), Libreville, Gabon
  • 62 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • 63 Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Herbarium and Biodiversity Science, Toowong, Queensland, Australia
  • 64 Ecole de Foresterie et Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d'Agriculture, Kétou, Benin
  • 65 School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
  • 66 Geography, Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
  • 67 Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Coordenação de Ciências da Terra e Ecologia, Belém, Brazil
  • 68 Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Joensuu, Finland
  • 69 Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
  • 70 Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
  • 71 Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele All'adige, Italy
  • 72 Glick Designs LLC, Hadley, MA, USA
  • 73 Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
  • 74 Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
  • 75 Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
  • 76 Cirad, UPR Forêts et Sociétés, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
  • 77 Forest Research Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
  • 78 Centre for Conservation Science, The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK
  • 79 Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana, Iquitos, Peru
  • 80 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
  • 81 AMAP, Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, France
  • 82 Department of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
  • 83 Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kórnik, Poland
  • 84 Faculty of Biology, Białowieża Geobotanical Station, University of Warsaw, Białowieża, Poland
  • 85 Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
  • 86 Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil
  • 87 School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
  • 88 Forestry Faculty, Mytischi Branch of Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Mytischi, Russian Federation
  • 89 Negaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
  • 90 CAVElab - Computational & Applied Vegetation Ecology, Department of Environment, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
  • 91 CTFS-ForestGEO, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
  • 92 Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, CO, USA
  • 93 UniSA STEM and Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
  • 94 Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, India
  • 95 Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Bioresources, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
  • 96 Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
  • 97 Institute for World Forestry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
  • 98 Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
  • 99 Biodiversity and Natural Resources Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria
  • 100 Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation
  • 101 Faculty of Forestry, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
  • 102 Center for Forest Ecology and Productivity, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
  • 103 Environmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
  • 104 AgroParisTech, UMR-AMAP, Cirad, CNRS, INRA, IRD, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
  • 105 Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Nova Xavantina, Brazil
  • 106 Department of Wildlife Management, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Tanzania
  • 107 Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
  • 108 Universidad del Tolima, Ibagué, Colombia
  • 109 Colegio de Profesionales Forestales de Cochabamba, Cochabamba, Bolivia
  • 110 Jardín Botánico de Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
  • 111 Department of Forest Management, Dendrometry and Forest Economics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
  • 112 Jardín Botánico de Missouri, Oxapampa, Peru
  • 113 Instituto de Silvicultura e Industria de la Madera, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Durango, Mexico
  • 114 Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Puyo, Ecuador
  • 115 Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
  • 116 Climate, Fire, and Carbon Cycle Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Durham, NH, USA
  • 117 Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
  • 118 V. N. Sukachev Institute of Forest, FRC KSC, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation
  • 119 Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
  • 120 Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India
  • 121 Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral (UNPA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Río Gallegos, Argentina
  • 122 School of Social Sciences (Urban Studies), Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
  • 123 GIP Ecofor, Paris, France
  • 124 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, Brazil
  • 125 Laboratório de Dendrologia e Silvicultura Tropical, Centro de Formação em Ciências Agroflorestais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Itabuna, Brazil
  • 126 Global Change Research Institute CAS, Brno, Czech Republic
  • 127 Chair of Forest Growth and Yield Science, Department of Life Science Systems, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
  • 128 Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Iquitos, Peru
  • 129 Servicios Ecosistémicos y Cambio Climático (SECC), Fundación Con Vida & Corporación COL-TREE, Medellín, Colombia
  • 130 Center for Natural Climate Solutions, Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA
  • 131 Department of Biology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
  • 132 Info Flora, Geneva, Switzerland
  • 133 Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
  • 134 Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
  • 135 Rhino and Forest Fund e.V., Kehl, Germany
  • 136 Geobotany, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
  • 137 Remote Sensing Laboratories, Department of Geography, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
  • 138 National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute Zvolen, Zvolen, Slovakia
  • 139 Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, Silva, Nancy, France
  • 140 Departamento de Biología, Universidad de la Serena, La Serena, Chile
  • 141 Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal do Acre, Rio Branco, Brazil
  • 142 Guyana Forestry Commission, Georgetown, French Guiana
  • 143 Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei Darussalam
  • 144 Plant Systematic and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Higher Teachers' Training College, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
  • 145 Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
  • 146 Compensation International Progress S. A. Ciprogress Greenlife, Bogotá, Colombia
  • 147 Center for Ecological Dynamics in a Novel Biosphere (ECONOVO) & Center for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
  • 148 Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
  • 149 Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, NY, USA
  • 150 Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation and Development (IIC), Georgetown, French Guiana
  • 151 School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
  • 152 Botanical Garden of Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Ural State Forest Engineering University, Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation
  • 153 Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
  • 154 LINCGlobal, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
  • 155 Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
  • 156 Silviculture Research Institute, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam
  • 157 Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
  • 158 Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, Portugal
  • 159 Environmental Studies and Research Center, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil
  • 160 Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
  • 161 Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hainan University, Haikou, China
  • 162 Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
  • 163 Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
  • 164 Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand
  • 165 Department of Wetland Ecology, Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
  • 166 Independent Researcher, Bad Aussee, Austria
  • 167 Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname (CELOS), Paramaribo, Suriname
  • 168 Tropenbos International, Wageningen, The Netherlands
  • 169 Polish State Forests, Coordination Center for Environmental Projects, Warsaw, Poland
  • 170 Research Center of Forest Management Engineering of State Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
  • 171 Department of Forestry and Environment, National Polytechnic Institute (INP-HB), Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire
  • 172 Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), Washington, DC, USA
  • 173 Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), Zurich, Switzerland. tom.crowther@usys.ethz.ch
Nature, 2023 Dec;624(7990):92-101.
PMID: 37957399 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06723-z

Abstract

Forests are a substantial terrestrial carbon sink, but anthropogenic changes in land use and climate have considerably reduced the scale of this system1. Remote-sensing estimates to quantify carbon losses from global forests2-5 are characterized by considerable uncertainty and we lack a comprehensive ground-sourced evaluation to benchmark these estimates. Here we combine several ground-sourced6 and satellite-derived approaches2,7,8 to evaluate the scale of the global forest carbon potential outside agricultural and urban lands. Despite regional variation, the predictions demonstrated remarkable consistency at a global scale, with only a 12% difference between the ground-sourced and satellite-derived estimates. At present, global forest carbon storage is markedly under the natural potential, with a total deficit of 226 Gt (model range = 151-363 Gt) in areas with low human footprint. Most (61%, 139 Gt C) of this potential is in areas with existing forests, in which ecosystem protection can allow forests to recover to maturity. The remaining 39% (87 Gt C) of potential lies in regions in which forests have been removed or fragmented. Although forests cannot be a substitute for emissions reductions, our results support the idea2,3,9 that the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of diverse forests offer valuable contributions to meeting global climate and biodiversity targets.

* Title and MeSH Headings from MEDLINE®/PubMed®, a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

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